A Dying Breed
Karoshi — death by overwork, is a major problem faced by Japanese employers and employees alike. By some reckonings, up to 10,000 Japanese die from it annually — grim testimony to the fierce dedication among workers which has helped propel Japan to a position of supremacy in key global industries.
Japan has, in fact, been reducing average working hours for some time. The number fell marginally to 2,052 hours in 1990 from 2,111 in 1987. The latest figures, however, arc still , 100-200 hours a year more than those worked in the West. More importantly, these official j tallies exclude unrecorded overtime, work taken home, and commitments such as entertaining clients on golf courses at weekends.
Thus, the national target of cutting average annual work hours to 1,800 by 1995 seems a tall order. It will require Japanese to take more holidays, as well as cut their working week. Legislation to cut standard weekly hours to 40 from 44 is expected to come into force next January, along with requirements that overtime pay exceed the current minimum of 125% of regular pay.
More to the point, will Japanese workers take their extra time off? Most employees currently use only seven to nine days out of annual leave allocations of two to four weeks. Their actual leave is, therefore, roughly half that taken by US workers and about a third of that taken by the Germans and the French. (Japan also has 13 annual pubic holidays, and some companies do offer extra days off.)
In a recent survey conducted by a Tokyo-based think-tank, 40% of those interviewed said they were “uncomfortable with taking paid holidays”, while another 41% said they would be “at a loss if given vacations lasting a month.” One common explanation for these sorts of results is that Japanese love to work. “We were taught as a child that diligence is the finest virtue,” says a 38-year-old journalist.
This traditional attitude is strongest among the post-World War II generation which single-mindedly pursued economic development. Many of the people now at the top of Japan’s big corporations, as well as in senior positions in government, are from this generation. And if these senior executives do not take holidays, few junior staff dare to do so in a society which values group action. As a result, millions of Japanese annually compete for leisure facilities during the national Golden Week and New Year breaks, when everyone stops work at the same time. “We feel secure when everybody is doing the same thing,” says the journalist
The view that the employee should devote almost all his or her waking hours to the work unit is further promoted by the traditional system of near-lifetime employment. Many of today’s graduates and white-collar workers, however, would prefer to leave the old system behind in favour of finite labour contracts with their companies.
Japan also needs to change retirement rules that virtually force employees to remain at work until their 60“ birthdays if they are to qualify for the lump-sum payments — typically ¥20-30 million — that supplement pensions. One advocate of such a move is Hitotsubashi University Professor Iwao Nakatani. He acknowledges, though, that this might require major changes in Japan’s state pension and social security systems to compensate for reducing company provisions.
Some big companies have begun making changes to work regimes. Sanyo and Matsushita, for example, plan to reduce the number of working hours to 1,800 by March 1994, while Sharp hopes to achieve the same goal by the late 1990s. Canon has even given its staff 16 consecutive days of vacation this summer. These cases, however, are the exception.
Moreover, a key caveat in the push towards more-relaxed work routines — as with other broader issues in the workload debate — is that changes agreed to by big companies may prove beyond the reach of small and medium-sized firms. By international standards, these smaller enterprises comprise an unusually large share of Japan’s economy and represent a considerable obstacle to change.
Currently, they are grappling with a chronic labour shortage at a time when the costs of labour-saving capital investment are rising. And times will get tougher as the economy slows and big companies squeeze their suppliers harder. “We are not talking about working less, but about how to maintain the same volume of work as last year,” says a spokesman for an Osaka-based small-business association.
Nonetheless, the new economic pressures now being felt by Japan are likely to produce changes whatever the outcome of the workload debate.
The collapse of the Tokyo stock-market and with it the era of warrant and convertible-bond issues has raised the cost of this once-popular form of financing from around 1% to nearer 5%-6%. Debt-servicing costs have also risen with higher interest rates. Companies have been cut off from cheap credit and manufacturing investment has slumped. The result is likely to slow down productivity gains.
Profits have, meanwhile, declined sharply on the back of reduced domestic and overseas demand, and of higher depreciation costs associated with earlier capital investment. The corporate sector is under pressure, too, from institutional investors and the Ministry of Finance to increase dividend pay-out ratios.
Japanese enterprises have dedicated employees whose workaholic tradition has helped . Japan's economy and made the country into an superpower. It is believed that there are cultural, historical and economic reasons behind the tradition. For example, the payments for employees who retire at the age of 60 is a comfortable addition to the state .
Recently, there has been pressure — both from domestic and overseas — for that tradition to change. As a result, are reducing the number of work hours. A lot of small and companies, however, may not afford to do so, as they are finding it difficult to their business. What has happened to Japanese economy recently, for example, the collapse of the , the shrinking of domestic and overseas are likely to influence the change in employees’ . It will be interesting to see how things develop.
AI explanationShows the answer. Tap to open.
Question Focus: Synonym match - summary says 'helped ... Japan's economy' and passage uses a verb meaning 'push forward'
Correct Answer: propel
Why this is correct: The summary says employees' dedication helped Japan's economy. The passage says this dedication helped propel Japan to global supremacy. Propel means push forward or drive progress.
Passage Reference: By some reckonings, up to 10,000 Japanese die from it annually - grim testimony to the fierce dedication among workers which has helped propel Japan to a position of supremacy in key global industries.
Common Mistake: Students may write help or push, but you must copy the exact word from the passage. This is a synonym trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'helped propel Japan' = Summary: 'has helped ... Japan's economy'
Tips: When the summary uses 'helped', look for a stronger verb in the passage that explains how.
Key Vocabulary:
- propel = push forward
- supremacy = top position
Question Focus: Synonym match - summary uses 'superpower'
Correct Answer: economic
Passage Reference: helped propel Japan to a position of supremacy in key global industries.
Why this is correct: The passage talks about Japan's dominance in industries, which is economic power. The summary paraphrases this as an economic superpower.
Common Mistake: Students may add global or industrial, but these words are not used in the summary gap. This is a partial truth trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'supremacy in key global industries' = Summary: 'economic superpower'
Tips: If the gap is before a noun, check that your answer is an adjective.
Key Vocabulary:
- economic = related to money and industry
Question Focus: Exact word match - retirement payments
Correct Answer: lump-sum
Passage Reference: Japan also needs to change retirement rules that virtually force employees to remain at work until their 60' birthdays if they are to qualify for the lump-sum payments - typically ¥20-30 million - that supplement pensions.
Why this is correct: The passage clearly mentions lump-sum payments given at retirement. The summary is referring to the same payments.
Common Mistake: Students may write bonus or retirement money, but you must copy the exact phrase. This is a synonym trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'lump-sum payments' = Summary: 'the lump-sum payments'
Tips: Hyphenated words count as one word in IELTS.
Key Vocabulary:
- lump-sum = paid all at once
Question Focus: Exact word match
Correct Answer: pensions
Passage Reference: qualify for the lump-sum payments - typically ¥20-30 million - that supplement pensions.
Why this is correct: The passage says the lump-sum payments supplement pensions, which matches the summary exactly.
Common Mistake: Writing pension in singular is wrong because the passage uses plural. This is a grammar trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'supplement pensions' = Summary: 'addition to the state pensions'
Tips: Always check if the noun in the passage is singular or plural.
Key Vocabulary:
- supplement = add to
Question Focus: Summary detail - who is reducing hours
Correct Answer: some big companies
Passage Reference: Some big companies have begun making changes to work regimes. Sanyo and Matsushita, for example, plan to reduce the number of working hours to 1,800 by March 1994, while Sharp hopes to achieve the same goal by the late 1990s. Canon has even given its staff 16 consecutive days of vacation this summer. These cases, however, are the exception.
Why this is correct: The passage clearly states that some big companies are reducing work hours. The summary directly reflects this idea.
Common Mistake: Students may write all companies, but the passage says only some. This is an extreme language trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'Some big companies have begun making changes' = Summary: 'As a result, some big companies are reducing'
Tips: Watch out for words like 'some', 'many', or 'all'. They matter.
Key Vocabulary:
- exception = not the usual case
Question Focus: Exact phrase match
Correct Answer: medium-sized
Passage Reference: changes agreed to by big companies may prove beyond the reach of small and medium-sized firms. By international standards, these smaller enterprises comprise an unusually large share of Japan's economy and represent a considerable obstacle to change.
Why this is correct: The passage talks about small and medium-sized firms struggling to change. The summary copies this structure.
Common Mistake: Leaving out the hyphen is usually acceptable, but changing the word is not. Writing middle is wrong. This is a synonym trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'small and medium-sized firms' = Summary: 'small and medium-sized companies'
Tips: Adjectives describing company size are often hyphenated.
Key Vocabulary:
- medium-sized = not very big
Question Focus: Exact word match - business difficulty
Correct Answer: maintain
Passage Reference: We are not talking about working less, but about how to maintain the same volume of work as last year,' says a spokesman for an Osaka-based small-business association. Nonetheless, the new economic pr
Why this is correct: The passage quotes firms saying they are trying to maintain their business. The summary uses the same idea.
Common Mistake: Students may write keep or continue, but these are not exact. This is a synonym trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'maintain the same volume of work' = Summary: 'maintain their business'
Tips: After 'to', always use the base form of the verb.
Key Vocabulary:
- maintain = keep at the same level
Question Focus: Specific event identification
Correct Answer: Tokyo stock market
Passage Reference: The collapse of the Tokyo stock-market and with it the era of warrant and convertible-bond issues
Why this is correct: The passage directly mentions the collapse of the Tokyo stock-market, which the summary refers to.
Common Mistake: Writing only stock market is too general. This is a partial truth trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'collapse of the Tokyo stock-market' = Summary: 'collapse of the Tokyo stock market'
Tips: Do not remove place names if they appear in the passage.
Key Vocabulary:
- collapse = sudden failure
Question Focus: Exact noun match
Correct Answer: demand
Passage Reference: Profits have, meanwhile, declined sharply on the back of reduced domestic and overseas demand, and of higher depreciation costs associated with earlier capital investment.
Why this is correct: The passage says profits fell because of reduced demand. The summary shortens this phrase.
Common Mistake: Writing demands in plural is wrong. This is a grammar trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'reduced domestic and overseas demand' = Summary: 'shrinking of domestic and overseas demand'
Tips: Check if a noun is countable or uncountable.
Key Vocabulary:
- demand = need or desire for products
Question Focus: Summary conclusion - what may change
Correct Answer: work hours
Passage Reference: Nonetheless, the new economic pressures now being felt by Japan are likely to produce changes whatever the outcome of the workload debate.
Why this is correct: The passage discusses changes related to workload and working time. The summary expresses this as changes in work hours.
Common Mistake: Students may write working conditions, which is too broad. This is a partial truth trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'workload debate' = Summary: 'employees' work hours'
Tips: Look at the final paragraphs for summary conclusion gaps.
Key Vocabulary:
- workload = amount of work
General Tips:
- Summary completion questions follow passage order. Use the previous answer to find the next.
- Always copy the exact word or words from the passage. Do not invent synonyms.
- Check grammar carefully. Articles, plurals, and verb forms must fit the sentence.
- Hyphenated words usually count as one word in IELTS.
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