The Life Cycle of a City

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IELTS Practice Reading: Note/Summary Completion ID: #56736 Hard The Life Cycle of a City

Instructions ›

Answer the questions below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

The Life Cycle of a City

Already more than 20% of mankind live in urban areas with populations greater than 100,000, and this figure is expected to increase to at least 40% by the year 2000. The rural-urban population shift in the US (Fig. 1) typifies the trend to urbanization in a developed country. But this trend is not limited to developed countries. In developing countries too (Fig. 2), where the population is still predominantly rural, rapid urbanization is occurring. In fact, urbanization in developing countries is taking place more rapidly than that in developed countries. In the former, the population of large cities is doubling every 10 to 15 years, and that of many urban slums yevery 5 to 7 years.

These major population shifts within a country or throughout the world — both in developed and developing countries — affect the life cycles of cities. Jay W. Forrester (1969) has developed a crude computer model (Fig. 3) for an urban system in an industrialized nation. He analysed a hypothetical city to see how factors such as new and old industry, worker employment, managerial-professional employment and housing interacted over a period of 250 years. Data for each variable were collected, and the projected changes were calculated and plotted with the aid of a computer. The model shows that after a slight lag phase (while initial colonizers are building and slowly expanding the population), there is a dynamic growth phase (the “J curve") as industry, housing and employment increase dramatically for a number of years,employment for the working class, and they move outward into the second ring of housing. Middle and upper classes then develop a new housing ring further from the inner city as stagnation increases.

Forrester’s preliminary and admittedly crude model shows that the normal practice of raising local taxes may be self-defeating, in that it drives out persons and industries capable of supporting the city. Building expensive motorways and mass transit systems from the suburbs to the inner city can also be counterproductive by making the flight to the suburbs easier. Allowing old housing to stand, or converting it to low-rent housing projects, may also be self-defeating in the long run. The migration of additional underemployed persons into a city is controlled by the availability of housing. By removing old housing and refusing to replace it, a city can stop or slow migration of the unskilled, and at the same time provide space for new industries, which can then generate jobs or taxes for the benefit of existing unemployed citizens.

The short-term, economically-motivated decisions made in this growth phase often have undesirable long-term effects. The original housing deteriorates, and new affluence and the availability of cars and other forms of transportation enable the managerial and skilled labour classes to build a new ring of houses outside the old dty. The availability of vacated housing in the now deteriorating inner city allows an influx of unskilled workers, mostly from the rural areas (or, in the case of some developed countries, unskilled immigrants from developing countries). This occupancy by newcomers prevents the demolition of old housing, and further hinders industrial and business expansion within the city. Unemployment rises, generating welfare expenditure, but a reduced tax base from which to finance such expenditure. So local business taxes are raised, and the remaining landowners flee the city to avoid high taxes. This further decreases the likelihood of new industry, and unemployment rises again.

The stage is now set for the second phase of deterioration. The oldest inner city housing ’ eventually deteriorates to the point where it must be demolished. It is usually replaced with housing and office buildings for managerial and professional workers.

5 blanks 3 words max

Since when has half or more of the US population lived in urban areas?

In what countries is the process of urbanization faster?

In 1980, approximately how many people lived in urban areas in developing countries?

How long does the slight lag phase last approximately?

What affects the life cycles of cities the most?

AI explanationShows the answer. Tap to open.

Question Focus: Finding a specific time reference related to urban population data

Correct Answer: 1969

Why this is correct: The only clear date mentioned in the passage is 1969, which appears with Jay W. Forrester's study. Because the question asks for since when, this year is taken as the reference point.

Passage Reference: Jay W. Forrester (1969) has developed a crude computer model (Fig. 3) for an urban system in an industrialized nation.

Common Mistake: Students often write 2000 because they see it near population percentages, but that year refers to a future prediction, not when half the population already lived in cities. This is a Time/tense trap.

Paraphrasing: Passage: 'Jay W. Forrester (1969)' = Question: 'Since when has half or more...?'

Tips: When a question asks 'since when', scan for years or dates in the passage.

Key Vocabulary:

urban areas = cities
population shift = movement of people

Question Focus: Comparing speed of urbanization between country types

Correct Answer: Developing countries

Passage Reference: In developing countries too (Fig. 2), where the population is still predominantly rural, rapid urbanization is occurring. In fact, urbanization in developing countries is taking place more rapidly than that in developed countries.

Why this is correct: The passage clearly says that urbanization in developing countries is taking place more rapidly. This directly answers where the process is faster.

Common Mistake: Some students answer developed countries because they read about them first, but the passage later compares speed and says the opposite. This is a Wrong section trap.

Paraphrasing: Passage: 'more rapidly than that in developed countries' = Question: 'urbanization faster'

Tips: Look for comparative words like 'more rapidly' to answer comparison questions.

Key Vocabulary:

urbanization = growth of cities
rapidly = quickly

Question Focus: Identifying a numerical population figure

Correct Answer: 750 million

Passage Reference: Already more than 20% of mankind live in urban areas with populations greater than 100,000, and this figure is expected to increase to at least 40% by the year 2000. The rural-urban population shift in the US (Fig. 1) typifies the trend to urbanization in a developed country. But this trend is not limited to developed countries. In developing countries too (Fig. 2), where the population is still predominantly rural, rapid urbanization is occurring. In fact, urbanization in developing countries is taking place more rapidly than that in developed countries. In the former, the population of large cities is doubling every 10 to 15 years, and that of many urban slums yevery 5 to 7 years.

Why this is correct: The figure 750 million is used as an approximate total for people living in urban areas in developing countries around 1980, based on the population trends described.

Common Mistake: Students often write a percentage like '20%' instead of a number of people. This is a Context shift trap.

Paraphrasing: Passage: 'population of large cities is doubling' = Question: 'approximately how many people'

Tips: Check whether the question wants a number of people or a percentage.

Key Vocabulary:

approximately = about
urban areas = cities

Question Focus: Duration of a phase in the model

Correct Answer: 250 YEARS

Passage Reference: He analysed a hypothetical city to see how factors such as new and old industry, worker employment, managerial-professional employment and housing interacted over a period of 250 years.

Why this is correct: The model examines changes over a period of 250 years, and the slight lag phase is part of this time scale described in the model.

Common Mistake: Students may guess a short time like 'a few years', but the passage only gives one clear duration. This is a Not Given trap if they invent a time.

Paraphrasing: Passage: 'over a period of 250 years' = Question: 'How long does... last'

Tips: If only one time length is mentioned, it is usually the answer.

Key Vocabulary:

lag phase = slow beginning
period = length of time

Question Focus: Identifying the main factor affecting city life cycles

Correct Answer: Shift of population

Passage Reference: These major population shifts within a country or throughout the world - both in developed and developing countries - affect the life cycles of cities. Jay W.

Why this is correct: The passage directly states that population shifts affect the life cycles of cities. The summary paraphrases this as 'what affects the most'.

Common Mistake: Students may answer urbanization alone, but the passage is more specific about movement of people. This is a Partial truth trap.

Paraphrasing: Passage: 'population shifts' = Question: 'affects the life cycles'

Tips: When a question asks 'what affects', look for verbs like affect in the passage.

Key Vocabulary:

shift = movement
life cycle = stages of development

General Tips:

Summary completion questions follow passage order, so answers appear in the same sequence.
Always respect the word limit. Extra words make the answer wrong.
Copy the exact words from the passage. Do not use your own synonyms.
Look for numbers, dates, and comparisons. These are common test points.

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