300-year-old secrets of Stradivarius
Stradivarius violins can cost £2 million. Does their sound match their price? Julian Brown asks what a 17th century craftsman knew that modern instrument makers are only just discovering.
Antonio Stradivari was bom in 1644, into a respected family of craftsmen in Cremona, a northern Italian town that was already tamed far afield for its violins.
Stradivari was apprenticed to the instrument maker Nicolo Amati at around the age of 12 and by the time he died, aged 93, he had made around a thousand violins and at least 300 other stringed instruments, including cellos, lutes and guitars.
A productive life, certainly, and a reasonably'well-rewarded one: he sold most of his output for the equivalent of around £4 each, and appeared well satisfied with the moderate, middle-class income and lifestyle his craft brought him and his family. Stradivari could never have dreamt that. 250 wars after his death, his violins are auctioned and reach prices anywhere from £200,000 to several million.
What makes a Stradivarius violin so valuable? That’s a question that continues to intrigue musicians, scientists and the public to this day. For decades, scientists and violin makers have tried to establish the Stradivarius's "secrets".
During his career. Stradivari made certain subtle changes in the proportions of the violin, gradually increasing the instrument's power. While his early work followed the traditions of his teacher Amati. by the close of the 17* century the Stradivarius had become flatter and broader and the bridge began to look much as it does today’.
But violin makers have long copied the proportionsofStradivarius'sinstruments without achieving die same results. So the secret must he elsewhere. But where? In the deep, lustrous auburn-red varnish, according to one theory. But there's a problem. Strads have withstood nearly 300 years of wear and tear. Not surprisingly, the nch varnish on many of them has taken a battering and. in some cases, most of it has been worn away. Yet these instruments still sound magnificent.
In the 1980s a US researcher came up with a new theory: the secret lay in the wood. Stradivari used wood - maple and spruce -that was delivered to Cremona by bemg floated along the Italian canals; perhaps the contact with water had changed its character. The idea was initially supported by electron microscope pictures of the violin's surface: Strad wood was found to be riddled with tiny, open pores, while those of modern instruments were tightly closed.
But later research suggested that whether the pores showed as open or closed under examination was not dependent on the violin at all. but rather on how the wood sample had been cut and prepared before it was examined imder microscopy.
Electron microscopy, however, may yet provide the answer. Recent research in Cambridge has found a layer beneath the Strad’s famed varnish. Under die Electron microscope it appears like a seam of marzipan sandwiched between the cake of wood and the icing-like varnish. Claire Barlow and Jim Woodhouse. who work in Cambridge University's Engineering Department, were able to obtain a few small samples of wood taken from Strads and other old instruments that were undergoing restoration. The}- subjected the middle layer to spectroscopic x-ray analysis to find out what it contained. The results varied from sample to sample, but they all contained a range ofminerals including aluminium, silicon, phosphorous and calcium.
This turns out to be consistent with another idea put forward in die 1980s. For some time experts had been arguing over whether the craftsmen of Cremona had used some kind of wood sealant before applying varnish to the instruments they were making.
John Chipura. an American geologist and violin enthusiast, published a letter in the magazine The Srrad suggesting that this sealant may well have been a layer of Roman cement. Readily available, the cement was made from local materials including volcanic ash. whose mineral constituents are very similar to those revealed by Barlow and Woodhouse’s spectroscopic analysis.
Even so. Barlow is reluctant to draw any firm conclusions about the purpose of the layer. "It's temptmg to think that it might have been applied as a sealant, or to provide a smooth surface on which you could varnish easily. But these layers are much thicker than you'd need to do either of those things. They were put on for some purpose that we still don't really understand."
Barlow's collaborator. Jim Woodhouse. has spent many years studying the acoustics of violins and he was interested to find out what effect the mineral layer would have on the soimd quality of the instruments.
"Virtually any treatment of the wood, such as a preservative or varnish, will change the vibrational properties of the violin and therefore its sound." he explains. "We have taken flat plates of spruce and varnished them with various combinations of finishes, but the differences in the vibrational properties we found were really rather subtle. So there may be an effect, but it’s not immediately obvious."
Undoubtedly Stradivari was a supreme craftsman, but the secret of his genius may not he in one aspect of his craftsmanship but in a combination of factors. 'To make a violin you’ve got to do a great many things right and in harmony with one another." says Woodhouse. "If there is a secret to the Stradivarius sound, it is in achieving a perfect balance."
How much did Stradivari receive for each violin he made? £
What natural material did John Chipura suggest was used in making the Stradivarius violin?
What quality of the layers makes Claire Barlow doubt their function as a sealant?
According to Jim Woodhouse, what might be the key to Stradivari's genius?
AI explanationShows the answer. Tap to open.
Question Focus: Synonym match - summary says 'traditional ___ of his teacher' and passage uses the same idea
Correct Answer: style
Why this is correct: The summary says Stradivari made his first violins in the traditional style of his teacher. The passage tells us his early work followed the traditions of his teacher Amati, which clearly means style.
Passage Reference: er. While his early work followed the traditions of his teacher Amati.
Common Mistake: Students sometimes choose construction because it sounds related to making violins, but the passage is about artistic tradition, not building method. This is a context shift trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'followed the traditions of his teacher' = Summary: 'traditional style of his teacher'
Tips: When you see 'traditional', look for words like 'traditions' or 'followed' in the passage.
Key Vocabulary:
- tradition = usual way
- style = manner of doing something
Question Focus: Synonym match - summary refers to later attempts to repeat Stradivari's work
Correct Answer: copies
Passage Reference: y'. But violin makers have long copied the proportionsofStradivarius'sinstruments without achieving die same results.
Why this is correct: The summary talks about later models and what people believed about them. The passage says violin makers copied the proportions but failed, so these are copies.
Common Mistake: Students may choose violins, but that is too general and misses the idea of imitation. This is a partial truth trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'violin makers have long copied' = Summary: 'subsequent copies'
Tips: Look for verbs like 'copied' in the passage. The noun form is often the answer.
Key Vocabulary:
- copy = make the same
- proportion = shape and size
Question Focus: Direct reference - shape and size of the violin
Correct Answer: proportion
Passage Reference: er. Stradivari made certain subtle changes in the proportions of the violin, gradually increasing the instrument's power.
Why this is correct: The summary mentions changes that made violins flatter and broader. The passage directly says changes in the proportions, so proportion is the exact word needed.
Common Mistake: Some students choose construction, but the passage is about size and shape, not building process. This is a paraphrase trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'changes in the proportions' = Summary: 'different proportion'
Tips: When the passage gives an exact word, always copy it instead of paraphrasing.
Key Vocabulary:
- proportion = relative size
- subtle = small but important
Question Focus: Identifying the material thought to affect the violin
Correct Answer: wood
Passage Reference: ent. In the 1980s a US researcher came up with a new theory: the secret lay in the wood.
Why this is correct: The summary refers to a theory about a material affecting the instrument. The passage clearly states the secret lay in the wood, so the answer is wood.
Common Mistake: Students may write maple and spruce, but that exceeds what the summary asks for. This is a partial truth trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'the secret lay in the wood' = Summary: 'Another theory was that the wood had a special effect'
Tips: Do not add extra details if the gap only asks for a general term.
Key Vocabulary:
- lay in = was found in
- theory = idea
Question Focus: Earlier theory about surface treatment
Correct Answer: varnish
Passage Reference: ere? In the deep, lustrous auburn-red varnish, according to one theory. But there's a problem. Strads have withstood nearly 300 years of wear and tear. Not surprisingly, the nch varnish on many of them has taken a battering and. in some cases, most of it has been worn away.
Why this is correct: The summary mentions a theory that something was lost but sound remained. The passage talks about the varnish being worn away, yet the sound staying magnificent.
Common Mistake: Some students choose colour, focusing on appearance not material. This is a context shift trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'auburn-red varnish' = Summary: 'lost this and yet still retain sound'
Tips: Follow the summary order. This gap comes before the wood theory, just like in the passage.
Key Vocabulary:
- varnish = protective coating
- lustrous = shiny
Question Focus: Effect on the nature of the wood
Correct Answer: composition
Passage Reference: nals; perhaps the contact with water had changed its character.
Why this is correct: The summary says transportation changed something about the wood. The passage explains water contact changed its character, meaning its composition.
Common Mistake: Students may write structure, which is not in the passage. You must copy the passage word. This is a synonym trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'changed its character' = Summary: 'change in the composition'
Tips: Abstract nouns like this are often paraphrased. Look for meaning, then copy the correct word.
Key Vocabulary:
- composition = what something is made of
- character = nature
Question Focus: New discovery inside the violin
Correct Answer: layer
Passage Reference: answer. Recent research in Cambridge has found a layer beneath the Strad's famed varnish. Under die Electron microscope it appears like a seam of marzipan sandwiched between the cake of wood and the icing-like varnish.
Why this is correct: The summary mentions material found within the violin. The passage clearly says researchers found a layer beneath the Strad's famed varnish.
Common Mistake: Some students choose sample, confusing the testing method with the discovery. This is a context shift trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'found a layer beneath' = Summary: 'investigating a layer of material'
Tips: When researchers 'find' something, that object is often the answer.
Key Vocabulary:
- layer = thin level
- beneath = under
Question Focus: Effect of the layer
Correct Answer: sound
Passage Reference: violins and he was interested to find out what effect the mineral layer would have on the soimd quality of the instruments. "Virtually any treatment of the wood, such as a preservative or varnish, will change the vibrational properties of the violin and therefore its sound." he explains.
Why this is correct: The summary asks what the layer may affect. Jim Woodhouse explains changes in vibration affect sound, so that is the correct answer.
Common Mistake: Students sometimes choose music, but the passage is about physical sound quality. This is a paraphrase trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'therefore its sound' = Summary: 'may affect the sound'
Tips: Look for cause and effect language like 'therefore'. The result is usually the answer.
Key Vocabulary:
- vibration = movement
- acoustics = study of sound
General Tips:
- Summary completion questions follow passage order. Use the previous answer to find the next one.
- Always copy the exact word from the passage. Do not use your own synonym.
- Check grammar carefully. Articles and adjectives before the gap tell you what form you need.
- With a word box, eliminate words that do not fit the meaning AND grammar.
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