The concept of childhood in the western countries
The history of childhood has been a topic of interest in social history since the highly influential 1960 book Centuries of Childhood, written by French historian Philippe Aries. He argued that “childhood” is a concept created by modern society.
A. One of the most hotly debated issues in the history of childhood has been whether childhood is itself a recent invention. The historian Philippe Aries argued that in Western Europe during the middle Ages (up to about the end of the fifteenth century) children were regarded as miniature adults, with all the intellect and personality that this implies. He scrutinized medieval pictures and diaries, and found no distinction between children and adults as they shared similar leisure activities and often the same type of work. Aries, however, pointed out that this is not to suggest that children were neglected, forsaken or despised. The idea of childhood is not to be confused with affection for children; it corresponds to an awareness of the particular nature of childhood, that particular nature which distinguishes the child from the adult, even the young adult.
B. There is a long tradition of the children of the poor playing a functional role in contributing to the family income by working either inside or outside the home. In this sense children are seen as ‘useful. Back in the Middle Ages, children as young as 5 or 6 did important chores for their parents and, from the sixteenth century, were often encouraged (or forced) to leave the family by the age of 9 or 10 to work as servants for wealthier families or to be apprenticed to a trade.
C. With industrialization in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a new demand for child labour was created, and many children were forced to work for long hours, in mines, workshops and factories. Social reformers began to question whether labouring long hours from an early age would harm children’s growing bodies. They began to recognize the potential of carrying out systematic studies to monitor how far these early deprivations might be affecting children’s development.
D. Gradually, the concerns of the reformers began to impact on the working conditions of children. In Britain, the Factory Act of 1833 signified the beginning of legal protection of children from exploitation and was linked to the rise of schools for factory children. The worst forms of child exploitation were gradually eliminated, partly through factory reform but also through the influence of trade unions and economic changes during the nineteenth century which made some forms of child labour redundant. Childhood was increasingly seen as a time for play and education for all children, not just for a privileged minority. Initiating children into work as ‘useful’ children became less of a priority. As the age for starting full-time work was delayed, so childhood was increasingly understood as a more extended phase of dependency, development and learning. Even so, work continued to play a significant, if less central role in children’s lives throughout the later nineteenth and twentieth century. And the ‘useful child, has become a controversial image during the first decade of the twenty-first century especially in the context of global concern about large numbers of the world’s children engaged in child labour .
E. The Factory Act of 1833 established half-time schools which allowed children to work and attend school. But in the 1840s, a large proportion of children never went to school, and if they did, they left by the age of 10 or11. The situation was very different by the end of the nineteenth century in Britain. The school became central to images of a normal childhood.
F. Attending school was no longer a privilege and all children were expected to spend a significant part of their day in a classroom. By going to school, children’s lives were now separated from domestic life at home and from the adult world of work. School became an institution dedicated to shaping the minds, behaviour and morals of the young. Education dominated the management of children’s waking hours, not just through the hours spent in classrooms but through /home/work, the growth of after school activities and the importance attached to ‘parental involvement.
G. Industrialization, urbanization and mass schooling also set new challenges for those responsible for protecting children’s welfare, and promoting their learning. Increasingly, children were being treated as a group with distinctive needs and they were organized into groups according to their age. For example, teachers needed to know what to expect of children in their classrooms, what kinds of instruction were appropriate for different age groups and how best to assess children’s progress. They also wanted tools that could enable them to sort and select children according to their abilities and potential.
What is the controversial topic arises with the French historian Philippe Aries’s concept?
What image for children did Aries believed to be like in Western Europe during the Middle Ages?
What historical event generated the need for great amount child labour to work long time in 18 and 19 century?
What legal format initiated the protection of children from exploitation in 19th centenary?
What the activities were more and more regarded as being preferable for almost all children time in 19th centenary?
Where has been the central area for children to spend largely of their day as people’s expectation in modern society?
AI explanationShows the answer. Tap to open.
Question Focus: Identifying the debated topic linked to Philippe Aries's concept
Correct Answer: History of childhood
Why this is correct: The passage says that the history of childhood is strongly debated, especially whether childhood is a recent invention. This debate comes directly from Aries's ideas, so this phrase answers the question clearly.
Passage Reference: One of the most hotly debated issues in the history of childhood has been whether childhood is itself a recent invention.
Common Mistake: Some students write childhood alone, but that is too vague. The debate is about the history of childhood, not childhood in general. This is a partial truth trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'the history of childhood has been a topic of interest' = Question: 'the controversial topic arises'
Tips: When a question asks about a topic, look for noun phrases that describe an area of study.
Key Vocabulary:
- controversial = debated
- concept = idea
Question Focus: Understanding Aries's view of children in the Middle Ages
Correct Answer: miniature adults
Passage Reference: The historian Philippe Aries argued that in Western Europe during the middle Ages (up to about the end of the fifteenth century) children were regarded as miniature adults, with all the intellect and personality that this implies.
Why this is correct: Aries believed children were seen as miniature adults in the Middle Ages. This phrase is used directly in the passage and exactly answers what image children had.
Common Mistake: Students sometimes write small adults. This is not copied from the passage, so it is wrong. This is a synonym trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'children were regarded as miniature adults' = Question: 'what image for children did Aries believe'
Tips: Always copy the exact wording from the passage, even if an easier synonym exists.
Key Vocabulary:
- miniature = very small
- regarded as = seen as
Question Focus: Finding the cause of increased child labour
Correct Answer: industrialization
Passage Reference: With industrialization in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a new demand for child labour was created, and many children were forced to work for long hours, in mines, workshops and factories.
Why this is correct: The passage clearly states that industrialization created a new demand for child labour. This directly answers what event caused children to work long hours.
Common Mistake: Some students write factories or mines, but these are places, not the historical cause. This is a context shift trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'With industrialization... a new demand for child labour was created' = Question: 'what historical event generated the need'
Tips: For cause questions, look for phrases starting with 'with', 'because of', or 'led to'.
Key Vocabulary:
- industrialization = growth of factories
- labour = work
Question Focus: Identifying the law that protected children
Correct Answer: factory Act
Passage Reference: In Britain, the Factory Act of 1833 signified the beginning of legal protection of children from exploitation
Why this is correct: The passage states that the Factory Act of 1833 began legal protection for children. Writing factory Act correctly names this law.
Common Mistake: Students sometimes write schools because schools are mentioned later, but schools are not a law. This is a wrong section trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'the Factory Act of 1833 signified the beginning of legal protection' = Question: 'what legal format initiated the protection'
Tips: When a year is mentioned with a capitalized name, it is often the exact answer.
Key Vocabulary:
- Act = law
- exploitation = unfair use
Question Focus: Understanding preferred activities for children
Correct Answer: Play and education
Passage Reference: Childhood was increasingly seen as a time for play and education for all children, not just for a privileged minority.
Why this is correct: The passage explains that childhood became a time for play and education for most children. This matches the idea of preferred activities in the nineteenth century.
Common Mistake: Some students write education only, but the passage stresses both activities together. This is a partial truth trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'time for play and education' = Question: 'activities were regarded as preferable'
Tips: If the passage lists two linked ideas with 'and', you usually need both.
Key Vocabulary:
- privileged = wealthy
- increasingly = more and more
Question Focus: Finding where children spent most of their day
Correct Answer: Classroom
Passage Reference: all children were expected to spend a significant part of their day in a classroom.
Why this is correct: The passage says children were expected to spend much of their day in a classroom. This directly answers where children spent most of their time.
Common Mistake: Students may write school, but the passage specifies classroom. Using a broader word is a synonym trap.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'spend a significant part of their day in a classroom' = Question: 'central area to spend largely of their day'
Tips: Use the most specific word given in the passage, not a general one.
Key Vocabulary:
- significant = large
- central = main
General Tips:
- Summary completion questions follow passage order. Find the first answer, then keep reading forward.
- Always copy the exact words from the passage. Synonyms are usually wrong.
- Check the word limit carefully. Even one extra word makes the answer incorrect.
- Use grammar clues in the question to decide if you need a noun, verb, or phrase.
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