| TRUE | if the statement agrees with the information |
| FALSE | if the statement contradicts the information |
| NOT GIVEN | if there is no information on this |
Mechanisms of Linguistic Change
A. The changes that have caused the most disagreement is those in pronunciation. We have various sources of evidence for the pronunciations of earlier times, such as the spellings, the treatment of words borrowed from other languages or borrowed by them, the descriptions of contemporary grammarians and spelling-reformers, and the modern pronunciations in all the languages and dialects concerned. From the middle of the sixteenth century, there are in England writers who attempt to describe the position of the speech-organs for the production of English phonemes and who invent what are in effect systems of phonetic symbols. These various kinds of evidence, combined with a knowledge of the mechanisms of speech-production, can often give us a very good idea of the pronunciation of an earlier age, though absolute certainty is never possible.
B. When we study the pronunciation of a language over any period of a few generations or more, we find there are always large-scale regularities in the changes: for example, over a certain period of time, just about all the long [a:] vowels in a language may change into long [e:] vowels, or all the [b] consonants in a certain position (for example at the end of a word) may change into [p] consonants. Such regular changes are often called sound laws. There are no universal sound laws (even though sound laws often reflect universal tendencies), but simply particular sound laws for one given language (or dialect) at one given period.
C. It is also possible that fashion plays a part in the process of change. It certainly plays a part in the spread of change: one person imitates another, and people with the most prestige are most likely to be imitated, so that a change that takes place in one social group may be imitated (more or less accurately) by speakers in another group. When a social group goes up or down in the world, its pronunciation of Russian, which had formerly been considered desirable, became, on the contrary, an undesirable kind of accent to have, so that people tried to disguise it. Some of the changes in accepted English pronunciation in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries have been shown to consist in the replacement of one style of pronunciation by another style already existing, and it is likely that such substitutions were a result of the great social changes of the period: the increased power and wealth of the middle classes, and their steady infiltration upwards into the ranks of the landed gentry, probably carried elements of middle-class pronunciation into upper-class speech.
D. A less specific variant of the argument is that the imitation of children is imperfect: they copy their parents’ speech but never reproduce it exactly. This is true, but it is also true that such deviations from the adult speech are usually corrected in later childhood. Perhaps it is more significant that even adults show a certain amount of random variation in their pronunciation of a given phoneme, even if the phonetic context is kept unchanged. This, however, cannot explain changes in pronunciation unless it can be shown that there is some systematic trend in the failures of imitation: if they are merely random deviations, they will cancel one another out, and there will be no net change in the language.
E. One such force which is often invoked is the principle of ease or minimisation of effort. The change from fussy to fuzzy would be an example of assimilation, which is a very common kind of change. Assimilation is the changing of a sound under the influence of a neighbouring one. For example, the word scant was once skamt, but the /m/ has been changed to /n/ under the influence of the following /t/. Greater efficiency has hereby been achieved because /n/ and /t/ are articulated in the same place (with the tip of the tongue against the teeth-ridge), whereas /m/ is articulated elsewhere (with the two lips). So, the place of articulation of the nasal consonant has been changed to conform with that of the following plosive. A more recent example of the same kind of thing is the common pronunciation of football as football.
F. Assimilation is not the only way in which we change our pronunciation in order to increase efficiency. It is very common for consonants to be lost at the end of a word: in Middle English, word-final [-n] was often lost in unstressed syllables, so that baken ‘to bake’ changed from [‘ba:kan] to [‘ba:k3], and later to [ba:k]. Consonant clusters are often simplified. At one time, there was a [t] in words like castle and Christmas, and an initial [k] in words like knight and know. Sometimes a whole syllable is dropped out when two successive syllables begin with the same consonant (haplology): a recent example is temporary, which in Britain is often pronounced as if it were tempory.
AI explanationShows the answer. Tap to open.
Question Focus: Contradiction - passage says we can often know earlier pronunciation, but not with absolute certainty
Correct Answer: FALSE
Why this is correct: The statement says it is impossible, but the passage clearly says we can often get a very good idea of earlier pronunciation. The writer only says we cannot be absolutely certain, not that it is impossible.
Passage Reference: These various kinds of evidence, combined with a knowledge of the mechanisms of speech-production, can often give us a very good idea of the pronunciation of an earlier age, though absolute certainty is never possible.
Common Mistake: Students focus on absolute certainty is never possible and think this means we know nothing. This is a Reverse meaning trap because the passage actually says we know quite a lot.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'a very good idea of the pronunciation of an earlier age' = Statement: 'find pronunciation of words in an earlier age'
Tips: Watch out for extreme words like impossible. Check if the passage really goes that far.
Key Vocabulary:
- absolute certainty = complete confidence
- earlier age = the past
Question Focus: Wrong language and wrong context - Russian vs English
Correct Answer: FALSE
Passage Reference: Some of the changes in accepted English pronunciation in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries have been shown to consist in the replacement of one style of pronunciation by another style already existing, and it is likely that such substitutions were a result of the great social changes of the period: the increased power and wealth of the middle classes.
Why this is correct: The passage talks about English pronunciation, not Russian history. Linking middle-class power to Russian language change is incorrect.
Common Mistake: Students see middle classes and assume it applies to Russian mentioned earlier. This is a Context shift trap because the social explanation is about English, not Russian.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'English pronunciation' = Statement: 'language in Russian history'
Tips: Always check which language the writer is talking about before answering.
Key Vocabulary:
- pronunciation = the way words are said
- middle classes = social group between rich and poor
Question Focus: Children imitation - extra assumption added
Correct Answer: NOT GIVEN
Passage Reference: A less specific variant of the argument is that the imitation of children is imperfect: they copy their parents' speech but never reproduce it exactly.
Why this is correct: The passage says children do not copy speech exactly, but it does not say that children assume language is difficult. That idea is not discussed.
Common Mistake: Students see children and imitation and choose TRUE. This is a Not Given trap because the extra idea about children thinking language is difficult is never mentioned.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'never reproduce it exactly' = Statement: 'difficult to imitate exactly'
Tips: If the statement adds a reason or belief, check carefully if the passage really mentions it.
Key Vocabulary:
- imitation = copying
- reproduce = copy again
Question Focus: Cause and effect - random variation does not cause change
Correct Answer: TRUE
Passage Reference: This, however, cannot explain changes in pronunciation unless it can be shown that there is some systematic trend in the failures of imitation: if they are merely random deviations, they will cancel one another out, and there will be no net change in the language.
Why this is correct: The passage says random deviations cancel each other and cause no net change. So casual or accidental inaccuracy does not strongly influence language change.
Common Mistake: Some students think any mistake causes change. This is a Causation trap because the passage says only systematic patterns cause change.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'random deviations' = Statement: 'causal inaccuracy'
Tips: Look for words like random and systematic. They are key to cause and effect questions.
Key Vocabulary:
- random = without pattern
- net change = overall change
Question Focus: Assimilation example - sound influenced by neighbour
Correct Answer: TRUE
Passage Reference: The change from fussy to fuzzy would be an example of assimilation, which is a very common kind of change. Assimilation is the changing of a sound under the influence of a neighbouring one.
Why this is correct: The passage explains that sounds can change because of neighbouring sounds. This supports the idea that a sound like nk can be influenced and pronounced differently.
Common Mistake: Students look for the exact word in the passage. This is a Synonym match situation where the idea is explained, not the exact example.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'changing of a sound under the influence of a neighbouring one' = Statement: 'can be influenced being pronounced as nf'
Tips: Do not expect the same example. IELTS often tests the rule, not the exact word.
Key Vocabulary:
- assimilation = sound becoming more similar
- neighbouring = next to
Question Focus: Future spelling change
Correct Answer: NOT GIVEN
Passage Reference: At one time, there was a [t] in words like castle and Christmas, and an initial [k] in words like knight and know.
Why this is correct: The passage mentions silent letters in the past, but it does not say anything about future spelling changes. There is no information about what will happen later.
Common Mistake: Students assume pronunciation change means spelling will change. This is a Not Given trap because the future is not discussed.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'there was a [t]' = Statement: 'not being pronounced'
Tips: Be very careful with statements about the future. IELTS often does not give that information.
Key Vocabulary:
- initial = at the beginning
- spelt out = written
Question Focus: Haplology - pronunciation shorter than spelling
Correct Answer: TRUE
Passage Reference: Sometimes a whole syllable is dropped out when two successive syllables begin with the same consonant (haplology): a recent example is temporary, which in Britain is often pronounced as if it were tempory.
Why this is correct: The passage shows that temporary is often pronounced tempory, so the pronunciation does not fully match the spelling.
Common Mistake: Some students think spelling always matches pronunciation. This is a Paraphrase trap because the statement uses different words for the same idea.
Paraphrasing: Passage: 'pronounced as if it were tempory' = Statement: 'cannot wholly present its spelling'
Tips: When you see an example word, always compare spelling vs pronunciation carefully.
Key Vocabulary:
- syllable = part of a word
- pronounced = said aloud
General Tips:
- TFNG statements follow passage order - use the previous answer's location to find the next one.
- If you cannot decide between FALSE and NOT GIVEN, ask: does the passage clearly say the opposite? If not, choose NOT GIVEN.
- Extreme words like 'impossible' or 'all' often signal FALSE answers.
- Do not add your own knowledge. Only use what is written in the passage.
The rest of this explanation is for members. Sign in free to read why the other options are wrong, key words and tips.
Sign in to read the full explanation